Sweden's two largest cities have completely different water purification systems — and it affects the type of chlorine you're exposed to every time you shower. We've examined the differences.
Stockholm uses chloramine (no strong chlorine odor), while Gothenburg uses free chlorine (distinct chlorine odor reported by users). Both cities meet the Swedish Food Agency's limit values, but the type of exposure and skin impact differ. Stockholm's water is also significantly softer than Gothenburg's.
Two Cities, Two Water Treatment Systems
Sweden's two largest cities — Stockholm and Gothenburg — have fundamentally different strategies for keeping their drinking water free from bacteria. And the difference is noticeable in the shower.
Stockholm Vatten och Avfall (Stockholm Water and Waste) uses chloramine as its primary disinfection method. Chloramine is a combination of chlorine and ammonia that acts slower but produces fewer by-products. The result: Stockholm has no strong chlorine odor in its water, and THM levels are kept low.
Göteborgs Stad (City of Gothenburg) uses free chlorine as its primary method. Users on forums like Reddit regularly report a distinct chlorine odor in Gothenburg's water — especially in the morning when flow rates are low.
What Does It Mean for Your Skin?
Chloramine and free chlorine affect the skin in different ways. Free chlorine is a stronger oxidant and irritates the skin's barrier more directly. Studies on hospital staff (including from Karolinska Institutet) have shown that regular exposure to chlorinated water is a known risk factor for hand eczema and contact dermatitis.
Chloramine is milder but not harmless. It also reacts with the skin's lipids and can dry out the skin. In combination with hard water (high calcium and magnesium content), the effect worsens: minerals react with fatty substances on the skin and form a chalky, uncertain coating that clogs pores and aggravates dry skin.
Stockholm's water is classified as soft to moderately hard (approximately 30 mg/L calcium carbonate), while Gothenburg's water is higher (50–80 mg/L). This means that Stockholmers experience less mineral load on their skin — but are still exposed to chloramine.
SVAVA Regional Water Reports and Water Hardness Map
What Does Research Say?
A 2018 study from the University of Sheffield published in the Journal of Investigative Dermatology showed that participants in hard water areas (more than 250 mg/L calcium carbonate) had 27 percent lower skin hydration after four weeks compared to controls in soft water areas. Although Swedish values are generally lower, the study confirms the mechanism.
The ADES study (Southampton/Derby, 2015–2018) showed that children in hard water areas (CaCO₃ > 200 mg/L) had a higher incidence of atopic dermatitis. The mechanism: calcium stearate (soap scum) irritates the skin and disrupts the barrier function. For adults with chronically dry skin and eczema, the same dynamics apply.
Karolinska Institutet, through its research on wet work and hand eczema, has confirmed that chlorinated water is an occupational risk factor for contact dermatitis. For someone who showers 5–10 minutes a day for an entire lifetime, the exposure is comparable to working half-time in healthcare.
1177 Vårdguiden on Dry Skin and Itching
What Can You Do?
1. Install a shower filter with calcium sulfite
A shower filter neutralizes both free chlorine and chloramine on contact. Calcium sulfite reacts with chloramine and converts it into harmless chloride ions and sulfate ions. The effect is the same whether your municipality uses free chlorine or chloramine.
2. Check your municipality's water report
SVAVA and your local water supplier are obliged to publish water quality data annually. Find out what type of chlorination your municipality uses and what THM levels have been measured. This gives you a realistic picture of your exposure.
3. Direct ventilation towards your bathroom
Whether you live in Stockholm or Gothenburg: THMs aerosolize in warm, humid air. Running the bathroom fan during and for 10 minutes after showering significantly reduces the inhaled dose.
4. Apply moisturizer within 3 minutes
There is no water filter that removes all minerals. After showering — on damp skin — apply a ceramide-rich moisturizer that compensates for the alkaline load and restores the skin's barrier.
Frequently Asked Questions
Which city has the best shower water?
It depends on what you prioritize. Stockholm has softer water (~30 mg/L CaCO₃) and uses chloramine (less THM, faint odor), but it can still irritate sensitive skin. Gothenburg has harder water (50–80 mg/L CaCO₃) and uses free chlorine (stronger odor, more skin irritation). Stockholm has the advantage on both parameters, but a shower filter is recommended in both cities.
What is chloramine and is it safer than free chlorine?
Chloramine (chlorine + ammonia) is an alternative disinfection method that forms fewer trihalomethanes (THM) than free chlorine. However, chloramine can still irritate skin and respiratory tracts, and at high shower temperatures, it can still form THM. It is not a universal solution.
I live neither in Stockholm nor Gothenburg. Does this apply to me?
It depends on the municipality you live in. SVAVA publishes regional water reports showing water hardness, chlorination type, and quality data for most Swedish municipalities. Check your municipality's water report to see exactly what applies to your postcode.
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